Every research has its purpose and there needs to be a justification for using a particular method. Depending on the research question, not all study designs will be suitable.
a) Phenomenological Studies
Phenomenology, now called descriptive phenomenology, focuses on exploring human experiences as described by the people involved.
Since phenomenology is a philosophy of experience, it has become the most commonly used methodology in qualitative research within the social and health sciences. Experience may involve perception, thought, memory, imagination, and emotion or feeling.
People experience things differently. Phenomenology aims to understand the meanings of these experiences from a first-person perspective. The researcher uses “bracketing” to set aside their preconceptions to fully appreciate the participants’ views.
When to use Phenomenology
Phenomenological studies are suitable when the research goal is to deeply understand the essence of personal experiences regarding a specific phenomenon.
When not to use
- If the research question seeks to establish a cause-and-effect relationship.
- When large-scale generalizations are the primary goal.
- When the research project has tight time limits as phenomenology requires extensive data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
Ease of use
For researchers without a background in philosophy and limited interviewing skills, phenomenology as a study design can be challenging because it requires an elaborate understanding of personal experiences and the ability to bracket one’s preconceptions.
For more on bracketing, read the article below.
Article link: Bracketing in Qualitative Research
Methods used in phenomenology include:
- Documents (historical documents)
- Oral recordings
- Interviews
b) Ethnographic Studies
This design involves studying cultural groups to understand their customs and everyday life. Ethnographers need to immerse themselves within the communities they study. Data is obtained by identifying key informants and collecting through observation and interviews. The goal is to develop cultural theories that reflect the group’s view of their world.
Exploration and data collection can occur in either an emic (observation happens from within the culture) or etic approach (observation is external looking in). This means that the setting is a very important consideration within ethnographic studies.
A common form of ethnography is auto-ethnography which involves exploration of the self as the topic being explored.
When to use
Ethnography is appropriate when the research seeks to explore and interpret the cultural patterns and social practices of a specific group or community in detail.
When not to use
Ethnography is not recommended when the study requires quick results or when it’s not feasible to immerse deeply into a community due to ethical concerns or logistical barriers.
Ease of use
This design requires significant time and immersion in the field, which can be demanding and logistically complex. The researcher has to demonstrate high levels of adaptability and cultural sensitivity.
Methods
Some methods in ethnographic studies include:
- Observation
- Interviews
- Focus groups
- Review of documentary evidence
- Keeping field notes
Using ethnography as a qualitative design requires the researcher to be aware of limitations such as inherent cultural biases, lack of genuine cooperation from the people of interest, and the Hawthorne effect.
Example research questions that can be explored using ethnography
- What expectations and beliefs do people Middle Eastern immigrants in California hold about their healthcare options?
- What practices are being undertaken by African American nurses in emergency care and are these consistent with best practice?
- What barriers are Indigenous populations experiencing in relation to different healthcare access?
- Are people within the Catholic community receiving the appropriate information and communication about reproductive health for them to then make informed educated decisions?
c) Grounded Theory Studies
The purpose of this qualitative study design is theory development.
Grounded theory involves generating theories directly from data collected during the research. The researcher performs continuous comparison methods, concepts, and patterns identifiable from data to form a theory that explains a process or phenomenon.
When to use
Grounded theory is used when the objective is to develop a theoretical explanation or model that emerges from the data.
Ease of use
While grounded theory is systematic and can yield robust theories, it demands a thorough (usually complex and time-consuming for beginners) understanding of iterative coding and theory development.
When not to use
Inappropriate for research that is intended to test specific hypotheses or when the researcher is not interested in developing a theory.
A key aspect of the sampling stage in grounded theory research is theoretical sampling, which helps to achieve “theoretical saturation” where no new insights or categories emerge from the data.
d) Historical Studies
The purpose of historical studies is to look at the past to inform the future.
When to use
Historical study design is suitable for examining past events to understand their impacts and implications on the present and future. It is ideal when the are extensive documents and artifact analyses.
When not to use
Avoid using this method when contemporary data and current phenomena are the focus.
Ease of use
Researchers might find this design challenging due to the need for extensive archival research. It may also require an evaluation of the authenticity and accuracy of historical documents.
Methods
- Documents (historical documents)
- Oral recordings
- Interviews
It’s worth noting the limitations of historical studies such as issues with validity, difficulty locating primary sources, and complexities in triangulating findings.
Example research questions to investigate using Historical Design
- What caused the Great War that may contribute to a similar event today?
- How has America’s religious community attitude to LGBTQIA+ changed over the past 50 years?
e) Case Studies
The purpose of a case study design is to provide an in-depth description of the experience of a single person, a family, a group, a community, or an organization. A case study cannot be used to test a hypothesis.
When to use
Case study designs are effective for detailed, context-rich investigations of a particular case. A case could be an individual, a group, or an organization.
When not to use
Case studies as qualitative research designs are not recommended when the goal is to produce findings that are widely generalizable to a larger population.
Ease of use
Generally, case studies are often considered more accessible due to their flexibility in data collection methods and practical focus. However, careful case selections along with detailed contextual understanding are needed to avoid oversimplified conclusions.
Example research questions to investigate using case study design
- How does the implementation of project-based learning contribute to student’s motivation at ABC University?
- What internal leadership factors contributed to the failure of Kodak, a once successful technology company?
f) Action Research Studies
Action research method focuses on the emancipation, collaboration, and empowerment of the participants.
When to use
Action research design is best used when the objective of the study is to implement and evaluate changes in practice directly within the context where problems are occurring. For this case, the design is ideal when the researcher has to involve stakeholders in the research process.
Ease of use
Action research is highly practical and immediately applicable. However, the collaborative and iterative nature of action research can be challenging as one needs to coordinate with participants and manage ongoing changes and evaluations.
When not to use
This qualitative study design is unsuitable for situations where the researcher needs to remain detached and unbiased. Bias originates from the direct need for the researcher to collaborate closely with participants.
Some methods commonly used for action research studies include surveys, interviews, oral recordings, focus groups, photovoice, and informal conversations.
Example research questions to explore using Action Research design
- What would it take to improve the stability of Aboriginal people’s living situations?
- What can we do to better the service provided by Amazon’s sales department and its talent search to improve customer experience?
- What can the Ministry of Tourism do to improve international visits to its newly built city?
